Top 3 Simple Things Every Computer User Should Know How to Do

1. Set Up a Simple Backup System

We all know we should back up our computers, but it’s always one of those things that you’ll set up “one day”. Setting up a backup only takes minutes, though, so you can do it right now and forget about it until you need it—and when you do need it, you’ll be glad you set it up. If you’re just backing up to an external drive, you can just use the simple tools built in to your computer, like Windows Backup or Apple’s Time Machine. However, that’ll only keep you safe if your computer fails. If you lose your home in a fire, get all your gear stolen, or experience any other kind of disaster (God forbid), you’ll have lost all those important documents, family photos, and other files forever. So, we recommend using a service like CrashPlan to back up your computer online. That way, it can back up no matter where you are, and that data will be safe no matter what happens to your hardware.

2. Do Everything Faster with Shortcuts

The great thing about computers is that they can do a lot of things much faster than a human. Say you’re looking for a specific word on a web page. Instead of scanning it yourself, all you need to do is press Ctrl+F and type the word you’re looking for. There are mountains of shortcut like this, from pressing Ctrl+S to instantly save the file you’re working on, Ctrl+P to print it out, or Ctrl+T to open a new tab in your web browser. It may seem like more trouble than its worth at first, but after you use a shortcut one or two times, you’ll wonder why you ever did anything with the mouse. Check out our list of six shortcuts everyone should know, as well as our shortcut of the day series for even more tricks.

3.Protect Yourself From Viruses 

Windows users have long known the pain of viruses and other malware, but the good news is it’s pretty easy to avoid. First, we recommend learning the difference between viruses, trojans, and other kinds of attacks, as well as the myths surrounding them. Then, install some good, free antivirus software to protect yourself (Avast is our current favorite, but Bitdefender is a slightly less nerdy, equally secure option). You can even get antivirus for your Android phone, if you so choose. But in the end, the best way to avoid viruses is to use common sense: don’t open links that look suspicious, don’t install programs from untrusted sources, and if a window pops up saying your computer’s infected, make sure it’s actually your antivirus software saying that and not a fake web page.

Run programs on an infected PC Often times, malware will prevent a computer from running certain programs. Changing the name of the .exe file can often override this. If that doesn’t work, changing the extension to .com is another useful alternative, and the program will still be able to run in spite of the extension change.

Read installers Even major programs can install toolbars and other unwanted pieces of software during installation. Take a few seconds to read each step to make sure you are not agreeing to install something other than the program you were actually seeking. Far too often people just push next over and over, and end up with a browser covered in various search bars that just aren't needed. In the worst of scenarios, these can have nefarious intentions.

Lock your computer if you get up Sick of your "friends" going onto your computer at work or home and posting things on your Facebook/Twitter page on your behalf? It’s certainly an annoyance, but an easy one to prevent. Windows + L will lock your system right away, requiring a password (if you've set one) to log in again.

 

 

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How PCs Work

First, you provide input when you turn on the computer. Then the system software tells the CPU to start up certain programs and to turn on some hardware devices so that they are ready for more input from you. This whole process is called booting up.

The next step happens when you choose a program you want to use. You click on the icon or enter a command to start the program. Let's use the example of an Internet browser. Once the program has started, it is ready for your instructions. You either enter an address (called a URL, which stands for Uniform Resource Locator), or click on an address you've saved already. In either case, the computer now knows what you want it to do. The browser software then goes out to find that address, starting up other hardware devices, such as a modem, when it needs them. If it is able to find the correct address, the browser will then tell your computer to send the information from the web page over the phone wire or cable to your computer. Eventually, you see the web site you were looking for.

diagram of computer downloading information

If you decide you want to print the page, you click on the printer icon. Again, you have provided input to tell the computer what to do. The browser software determines whether you have a printer attached to your computer, and whether it is turned on. It may remind you to turn on the printer, then send the information about the web page from your computer over the cable to the printer, where it is printed out.

The word computer refers to an object that can accept some input and produce some output. In fact, the human brain itself is a sophisticated computer, and scientists are learning more about how it works with each passing year. Our most common use of the word computer, though, is to describe an electronic device containing a microprocessor.

A microprocessor is a small electronic device that can carry out complex calculations in the blink of an eye. You can find microprocessors in many devices you use each day, such as cars, refrigerators and televisions. The most recognized device with a microprocessor is the personal computer, or PC. In fact, the concept of a computer has become nearly synonymous with the term PC.

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Holographic Optical Elements with LED-Based Optics

Advances in LED technology continue to bring new opportunities in digital displays. Existing optical technologies are also benefiting from the LED boom, specifically Holographic Optical Elements or HOEs.  Holographic Optical Elements are holographic images embedded onto a thin, clear photopolymer film that can be applied to glass or plastic surfaces. When a light source, such as LED, is projected onto the surface, the invisible recorded holographic images come to life. Although the technology has existed for decades, Luminit scientists and engineers are turning once futuristic concepts into tangible opportunities for manufacturers and government agencies.

HOE Imaging and RGB LED Light

Because holographic images are captured on thin flexible films, engineers can create unique displays that would otherwise be impractical with conventional optics. For example, HOEs can redirect images from a light source that is hidden from view. HOEs can also create a transparent image on a surface such as glass or acrylic.  While the possibilities are practically endless, the most practical applications of HOE technology being developed are head-up displays (HUDs) on helmets and smart glasses, as well as holographic light projection on car windshields and for interior and exterior lighting.

HOE in Automobiles

HOE presents multiple opportunities for the highly competitive, high-end automotive industry. Luminit scientists have been working on HOE technology for over a decade and have refined the holographic capabilities for brightness, transparency, and responsiveness to color selectivity (i.e., red, green or blue).  For example, HOE film combined with an LED light source would allow a floating, transparent image to appear on the windshield without any obstruction of view. Because color selectivity is now possible, RGB LEDs can be divided by color and placed on the same thin, clear HOE film.  Red could display distance to the vehicle ahead, green an approaching car, and blue the current vehicle speed.  The driver does not need to focus on the image to view it or ever take his or her eyes off the road.

Other uses for HOE in automobiles include hiding a light source, such as interior dome lights, or center high mount stop light (CHMSL) on the rear windshield of modern cars.  Based on Luminit’s Transparent Holographic Component technology, the film combines a holographic image area, an acrylic guide and an LED light source to transfer the projected light. An example of how this could applied to a car’s interior is the dome light. Dome lights typically protrude out of the vehicle ceiling. HOE film can be embedded in the liner and the light source can be concealed from view. Transparent in the off state, light from the dome would appear to come the liner. HOE can also be a key factor in branding.  Floor lights or mud lights, for example, on high end cars can project light as well as the auto manufacturer’s logo.

HOE for Heads up Displays and Wearables

HOE also performs well on heads up displays for pilots and motorcyclists as well as wearable technology such as smart glasses. For helmets, HOE possibilities include head-mounted displays for off-axis image projection of a high-resolution micro display through a thin plastic visor. For smart glasses, HOE eliminates prism-based optics currently used on Google glass with fully see-through technology that allows the images to be viewed at a virtual distance without added weight to the user.

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Digital Signatures and Certificates

When we think of VPNs, often our first thought is that of encryption of the user data. But adversaries or those intent on reading the data could However an attacker could record a conversation and then replay the replies between to participants. What we need to do is to be able to ensure the source of the data is genuine, and that is where digital signatures and certificates comes in.

To construct a Digital Signature, public key encryption systems must be in place. The construction of the Digital Signature entails applying a hash function to the message by concatenation of the message with a known secret key and then applying a mathematical function which will produce a fixed length output known as the digest. The digest is then encrypted with the public decryption key which produces a signature that can be appended to the message to verify that the message is from the genuine source.

The receiver recalculates the hash function and compared with the signature after applying the public key. If the two match, then because only the originator could have known the hash function and the private key, the message must be genuine.

Message Digest algorithms use Hash functions to map many potential inputs to each of a large number of outputs. What is normally produced is a fixed length field, typically a few hundred bits in length. A secret key is shared between sender and receiver and by concatenating this with a message for transfer, the digest is produced.

MD5 (Message Digest 5) is probably the most common hash function used, and it produces a 128 bit digest which is often appended to the header before the packet is transmitted. Any change in the message will cause the digest to change, and even the source and destination IP addresses can be used together with the message contents when creating the digest, which validates the addresses.

Another popular hashing algorithm is SHA (Secure Hash Algorithm) that produces a 160 bit digest ensuring greater security than MD5.

It doesn't matter how long the digest is, an identical digest will always result for an identical packet. But anyone wishing to attack the system could monitor exchanges and determine which packets sent in what ever order would result in some known result. This result could therefore be reproduced by replay of the messages. This is known as a collision attack.

HMAC (Hash-based Message Authentication Code) can be used to combat collision attacks by including two calculated values know as ipid and opid, which are initially calculated using the secret key for the first packet and recalculated for subsequent packets. The values are stored after each packet and recovered for use in the calculation of the digest for the next packet. This ensures that the digest is always different even for identical packets.

A Digital Certificate is produced using some known information such as name, address, mother's maiden name, house number, National Insurance number, or indeed anything. This information is appended to the public key and then used as part of the hash function to create the digest which is then encrypted using the private key through a secure encryption system such as RSA or AES.

A Digital Certificate can be validated by passing it through the public encryption process with the public key for the user to yield the digest. This can be compared with the calculation of the digest from the claimed identity of the user and their public key. If the two calculations yield the same result then the certificate is valid. Digital certificates are appended to messages to verify the authenticity of the source of the message.

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Science & Technology

The content standards presented in this chapter outline what students should know, understand, and be able to do in natural science. The content standards are a complete set of outcomes for students; they do not prescribe a curriculum. These standards were designed and developed as one component of the comprehensive vision of science education presented in the National Science Education Standards and will be most effective when used in conjunction with all of the standards described in this book. Furthermore, implementation of the content standards cannot be successful if only a subset of the content standards is used (such as implementing only the subject matter standards for physical, life, and earth science).

The eight categories of content standards are:

1. Unifying concepts and processes in science.

2. Science as inquiry.

3. Physical science.

4. Life science.

5. Earth and space science.

6. Science and technology.

7. Science in personal and social perspectives.

8. History and nature of science.

The standard for unifying concepts and processes is presented for grades K-12, because the understanding and abilities associated with major conceptual and procedural schemes need to be developed over an entire education, and the unifying concepts and processes transcend disciplinary boundaries. The next seven categories are clustered for grades K-4, 5-8, and 9-12. Those clusters were selected based on a combination of factors, including cognitive development theory, the classroom experience of teachers, organization of schools, and the frameworks of other disciplinary-based standards. References for additional reading for all the content standards are presented at the end of Chapter 6.

The sequence of the seven grade-level content standards is not arbitrary: Each standard subsumes the knowledge and skills of other standards. Students' understandings and abilities are grounded in the experience of inquiry, and inquiry is the foundation for the development of understandings and abilities of the other content standards. The personal and social aspects of science are emphasized increasingly in the progression from science as inquiry standards to the history and nature of science standards. Students need solid knowledge and understanding in physical, life, and earth and space science if they are to apply science.

Multidisciplinary perspectives also increase from the subject-matter standards to the standard on the history and nature of science, providing many opportunities for integrated approaches to science teaching.

1. Unifying Concepts and Processes Standard:

Conceptual and procedural schemes unify science disciplines and provide students with powerful ideas to help them understand the natural world. Because of the underlying principles embodied in this standard, the understandings and abilities described here are repeated in the other content standards. Unifying concepts and processes include:

i. Systems, order, and organization.

ii. Evidence, models, and explanation.

iii. Change, constancy, and measurement.

iv. Evolution and equilibrium.

v. Form and function.

This standard describes some of the integrative schemes that can bring together students' many experiences in science education across grades K-12. The unifying concepts and processes standard can be the focus of instruction at any grade level but should always be closely linked to outcomes aligned with other content standards.

Early grades, instruction should establish the meaning and use of unifying concepts and processes-for example, what it means to measure and how to use measurement tools. At the upper grades, the standard should facilitate and enhance the learning of scientific concepts and principles by providing students with a big picture of scientific ideas-for example, how measurement is important in all scientific endeavors.

2. Science as Inquiry Standards:

In the vision presented by the Standards, inquiry is a step beyond ''science as a process," in which students learn skills, such as observation, inference, and experimentation. The new vision includes the "processes of science" and requires that students combine processes and scientific knowledge as they use scientific reasoning and critical thinking to develop their understanding of science. Engaging students in inquiry helps students develop

i. Understanding of scientific concepts.
ii. An appreciation of "how we know" what we know in science.
iii. Understanding of the nature of science.
iv. Skills necessary to become independent inquirers about the natural world.
v. The dispositions to use the skills, abilities, and attitudes associated with science.

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Put Your Best Foot Forward With Morph Transitions in PowerPoint 2016

Building a swashbuckling PowerPoint presentation indeed is not an easy affair. To craft a good example of PPT one requires regimentation of thoughts, precise content and off course good transition features too.

Working on the last aspect mentioned above, Microsoft has brought a brand new transition type or feature simply known as "Morph". With this innovative "Morph" feature it is now lot more simple to craft attractive slide templates as the building block for an exceptional PPT example. Most amazing facet of Morph is that it can be applied automatically to move or transform objects, shapes, charts, SmartArt, pictures, words or characters across the PowerPoint templates and best part is that all this can be done with just one click.

Going by the dictionary meaning Morph is defined as "To change smoothly from one image to another using computer animation". This is what this new automatic feature encompasses for users i.e. smoothly bring change.

With Morph's cool features it is pretty simple to zoom in, spin, resize and alter colors of an object in a slide PPT. Similarly, word rotation, font resizing, alteration in font type etc. can also be applied. There is more, as movement of characters can also be achieved with Morph. One significant point that needs to be underlined here is, keeping the character case or capitalization same for the whole slide is essential to apply this transition. Last but not least, PowerPoint 2016 and Office 365 is an essential requirement to apply Morph.

Now, let's comprehend how exactly Microsoft's new automatic Morph feature works.
First and foremost, to apply any sort of Morph two identical PPT slides are required. This can be obtained by copying one slide design. If not identical, than the two presentation slides should have at least one common feature so as to apply any sort of Morph.

Coming to application of Morph in PowerPoint Presentations, than it is a short and simple just a three step procedure:

1. Firstly, make a replica of the original slide by clicking "Duplicate Slide" option or simply with Ctrl+D.

2. Secondly, apply desired alterations in the replica or second PPT slide.

3. Finally, apply Morph transitions in replica or second PPT slide to move objects, words or character as per your style.

Let's have a close look at the step by step procedure for better comprehension of the Morph application.

1. To apply the transition just select or pick the second replica slide.

2. After this bring the cursor on the ribbon or tool bar to select "Transition Tab" or in case of Android "Transition Effect".

3. A menu will open here. From this menu select "Morph".

4. On selecting "Morph", further various "Effect Options" will open like Objects, Words or Characters.

5. Now select the desired option as per requirement to apply Morph.

6. Apart from this, adjacent to "Effect Options" other options like of "Sound", "Duration" and "Apply to all" will highlight.

7. Set these parameters as per the requirement of the specific PowerPoint show.
In nut shell, Morph actually bring myriad of effects to make a PPT model truly a jaw dropping one. Another equally significant factor here is that it saves users precious time, which otherwise could have gone waste to create same effect with Motion Path Animation.

By and large, Morph makes object, word or character movement pretty smooth thereby giving a professional touch. Moreover, as Morph is an automatic transition feature hence there is no need to understand the theory. Simply click and start!

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The Lithium Ion Battery Advantages

Li-ion battery or Lithium ion battery is one of several types of rechargeable batteries. During the discharge process, the lithium ions travel from the anode to the cathode and vice versa. Let's know a bit more about the advantages of lithium-ion batteries.

How do these batteries work?

Different types of li-ion batteries make use of different types of cathodes. The cathodes are made of lithium molecules. Generally, the anodes are made of carbon. As with other types of batteries, the chemical reaction that happen between the cathode, anode and the electrolyte generate electric current. Aside from this, the stuff used for these will affect the cost, capacity, performance and the safety of a certain type of battery.

Li-ion batteries, for instance, that feature a lithium cobalt oxide cathode can give you a bit higher capacity. However, they are more reactive because of the lower thermal capacities. Another great option is the lithium iron phosphate. Their life cycle is 4-5 times longer. Moreover, their power density is around 10 times better.

These batteries are of various classes, but they are commonly used in portable or consumer devices like smartphones and laptops. Aside from this, this type of battery is also popular for use in aerospace, military and other electric automobiles.

Given below are some pros and cons of lithium ion batteries.

Lighter and smaller:

These batteries are lightweight but offer higher capacity than other types of products out there. Therefore, it is commonly used in portable devices where the physical specs like form factor and weight are on the list of important considerations.

Energy Density

Lion batteries feature higher density of energy than other types, which means you can enjoy higher capacity irrespective of the size. That is why these batteries are an ideal choice for power-hungry devices like smartphones and laptops. With the advancements in technology, we will have higher capacities down the road.

Self-discharge

Another great characteristic of a Li-ion battery is that it has only 1.5% self-discharge rate per month, which means that it offers longer-shelf life. The reason is that its discharge rate is lower than most of other rechargeable batteries. Here it's important to note that the self-discharge rate of a nickel-metal hydride is 20% per month.

Fast charging

This type of battery recharges quickly. Usually, it takes a lot less time to recharge than other types on the market.

Open-circuit voltage

Li-ion batteries offer high open-circuit voltage compared to other batteries like nickel-metal hydride, lead acid and so on.

Lifespan

These batteries last longer than other batteries. Even after hundreds of recharging cycles, it will retain its capacity. For instance, some batteries of this type loss only 30% of their capacity even after 1000 cycles.

So, this was a description of Li-ion batteries and their advantages. If you have been looking for a good battery for your needs, we suggest that you take into account this type first. Due to the number of advantages they offer over other types, your best bet is to go for this type.

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Difference Between Chip and Wafer in Electronics

Difference Between Chip and Wafer in Electronics

A chip is generally known as an Integrated Circuit, it's an assembly of electrical parts which are made in one unit, however a wafer represents small slices of silicon which are utilized in the production of integrated circuits like the integrated circuits are used in most wafers.

An integrated circuit is called a microchip, it's a small electrical product which is a package of circuits, pathways, and also transistors etc., most performing to each other to do a specific task or even may perhaps be a number of tasks. The microchips are the backbones for many of the latest electrical products such as microprocessors, sound as well as video instruments and also vehicles. The integrated circuit is used in the wafer. A microchip includes electrical materials such as transistors. They are utilized for giving the logic circuitry.

A microchip is usually produced from silicon wafer. The microchips are of many types. CPU microchips are generally known as microprocessors.

In electronic devices, a wafer is usually referred to as a slice as well as substrate. it's a small slice of semiconductor components and this slice is utilized for the manufacturing of integrated circuits. It performs just like a base where an integrated circuit is usually produced. All these small slices are considered as heart of electrical products. The microcircuits on the wafers are manufactured by the diffusion and also deposition of several materials. The ever-growing trade of electronic products usually tends to form smaller microchips which are more powerful and economically less expensive as compared to the previous versions.

Raw silicon is changed into one crystal substrate by using several procedures. Many of the silicon is manufactured by reducing of SiO2 with carbon and therefore, industrial brown Metallurgical Grade Silicon is produced. This also ought to be even more refined and thus MG-Si is reacted with Hcl to get TCS. This procedure will be able to take out pollutants such as Fe, Al and also B. After that, with the method of crystal growing, the product samples with a single crystal orientation are produced. Later on by using monocrystalline seed, a rounded crystal is produced. Small slices of the crystal are produced and also those slices are referred as wafers. Later the growth procedure happens and finally the several equipments are utilized in order to get the preferred features such as shapes, etc.. Wafers are available in many diameters.

The difference between a wafer and microchip resides in the relation between them. A wafer acts as a base for chip or chip is embedded in the wafer. They together form the important unit that is widely used in the world of electronics.

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